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Aaron 1397-1273 BCE): Born in Egypt, he was the brother of Moses and spokesman in the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. First High Priest and patriarch of Jewish priesthood, he was a lover of peace but succumbed to pressure when the Children of Israel built the Golden Calf. He died in the desert before the Israelites crossed the Jordan River.
Abraham (1813-1638 BCE): Born in Ur of Chaldeans, he was the first of the three Patriarchs and first Jew. Founder of monotheism, he rejected idolatry and journeyed from Mesopotamia to Canaan where he entered into a covenantal relationship with G-d. Abraham was the husband of Sarah and Hagar and father of Ishmael and Isaac--his heir.
Abraham Ibn Ezra (c. 1092-1167): Born in Tudela, Spain, he was a foremost Jewish biblical commentator, poet and philosopher in Muslim Spain in the Middle Ages. He was a precursor to biblical criticism. His fundamental principle was that the human intellect is an "angel sent from God."
Elisha ben Abuyah/ HaAcher [“the Other”] (70-135 AD): Born into a prominent Jerusalem family, he was an outstanding Mishnaic scholar and rabbi who became a notorious heretic and betrayed his people to the Romans.
Adam (3760-2830 BCE): “Born” in Gan Eden, he was the first man, created by G-d on the sixth day. His wife, the first woman, Eve, was formed from his rib; together, they are the progenitors of the human race. They lived in the Garden of Eden until they were expelled for eating from the forbidden Tree of Knowledge.
Aggadah: the non-legal sections and aspects of the Talmud.
Alef-Beis: the Hebrew alphabet.
Sholem Aleichem (1859-1916): Born in Pereiaslav, Ukraine, as Shalom Rabinovitz, he adopted the pen name Sholem Aleichem. Together with Mendele Mocher Sforim and I. L. Peretz, he was a founding father of modern Yiddish literature. He is most famous for his collection of short stories “Tevye the Dairyman,” a tragicomedy of shtetl life in the late Russian Empire. Since 1939, Tevye and Fiddler on the Roof have been constantly adapted for the screen and stage.
Akedah: the account of the Binding of Isaac in the Book of Genesis, chapter 22.
Aliyah: immigration to the Land of Israel.
Ani Maamin: The twelfth of Maimonides’ thirteen principles of faith: “I believe with complete faith in the coming of the Messiah.” These words have been set to a number of Hasidic melodies as well as songs.
Yasser Arafat (1929-2004): Born in Cairo, as Muḥammad Abd al-Raʾūf al-Qudwah al-Ḥusaynī, Yasser Arafat was the head of the Fatah Party, chairman of the Palestinian Liberation Organization and president of the Palestinian Authority from 1996 to 2004. In 1993, Arafat signed the Oslo I peace treaty with Prime Minister Yitzchak Rabin. In 1994, both leaders, along with Shimon Peres, jointly received the Nobel Prize for Peace. Despite receiving a peace prize, Arafat led the Palestinians into the Al-Aqsa Intifada , a bloody conflict with Israel that lasted from 2000 to 2005 and cost the lives of thousands of Israelis and Palestinians.
Azariah (c, 400 BCE): Exiled from Judah, Azariah and his friends Daniel, Hananiah and Mischael were trained as chamberlains in the royal Babylonian court, where they later became government officials. Refusing to worship the golden image of Nebuchadnezzar, they were thrown into a furnace but miraculously remained unharmed, as recorded in the Book of Daniel.
The Baal Shem Tov/Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov/ the Besht (1698-1760): Born in Okopy, Ukraine, and named after the Jewish people, Israel ben Eliezer became a teacher, healer, preacher and miracle worker. He established his court in Międzyboż, where he founded the center of Hasidic life for Eastern European Jewry and where students gathered to hear and spread his teachings. According to the Besht, the unlettered Jew was as holy as the scholarly Jew, intent was prioritized over achievement and fervor and humility were elevated. His popularity aroused strong opposition from the more rational Talmudist movement.
Bach (1685-1750): Born in Eisenbach, Germany, Johann Sebastian Bach was one of the most famous classical composers. He defined the genre of Baroque music. Among his most famous compositions were the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, and the Cello Suites.
Beethoven (1770-1827): Born in Cologne [Germany], Ludwig van Beethoven is considered one of the greatest classical music composers. His music helped to usher in and inspire the Romantic period of music (1820-1910). Influenced by humanism, the French Revolution and nationalism, Beethoven showed that music could convey values and philosophy as powerfully as the written word. Despite being deaf during the last ten years of his life, Beethoven composed his masterpiece, Symphony No. 9.
Beis Medresh: a room or set of rooms designed for the study of Torah.
David Ben-Gurion (1886-1973): Born in Plonsk, Poland, he was one of the most important Zionist statesmen of the 20th century. Leader of Mapai (the Labor Party), his was an uncompromising vision of Jewish unity and statehood. Political pragmatism combined with military leadership enabled him to establish the State of Israel and guide it through the challenges of its early years. Among the many political positions he held, he was the first Prime Minister of Israel (1948-1954).
Cain and Abel: Probably born outside Gan Eden, they were the sons of Adam and Eve. Cain was a farmer; Abel a shepherd. Cain, the elder brother, committed fratricide after G-d accepted Abel's sacrifice and not his. According to tradition, he was killed by his great-great-great grandson, Lemech.
Albert Camus (1913-1960): Born in Algeria, he was a French writer, who most famously authored The Stranger, The Plague, and The Myth of Sisyphus. Camus was a part of the left that opposed the Soviet Union for its totalitarianism and he contributed to the rise of absurdism. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1957.
Candle-lighting time: The hour and minute at which Shabbat or holidays begin. The entry of the holy day is marked by lighting candles.
Rabbi Yehoshua ben Chananiah (c. 50-130 CE): Born in Judea, Rabbi Yehoshua was the student of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai and the teacher of Rabbi’s Akiva. After the destruction of the Temple, Rabbi Yehoshua left Jerusalem for Yavneh, where he became the Av Beit Din, the Head of the Sanhedrin, second in authority to the Nasi. He was one of the principal founders of Rabbinic Judaism and one of the most quoted scholars in the Mishnah and Talmud. Legend has it that he traveled to Rome to negotiate with Emperor Hadrian for greater tolerance towards the Jews.
Chanukah: Eight-day holiday that begins on Kislev 25 and celebrates the rededication of the ancient Jerusalem Temple.
Chumash: A volume containing the Five Books of Moses (the Pentatuch), usually accompanied by an Aramaic translation and glossed with classical rabbinic commentaries.
Daniel (c. 400 BCE): Born in Jerusalem, the prophet Daniel was exiled to Babylon with Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah. He trained as a chamberlain in the royal court. After successfully interpreting Nebuchadnezzar's dream, he attained a high government position. During Belshazzar's reign, Daniel deciphered writing that suddenly appeared on the wall, predicting Babylon's downfall. During the reign of Darius, he was thrown into a lions' den for praying to G-d; miraculously, he survived unharmed.
King David (907-837 BCE): Born in Bethlehem, David achieved fame after defeating the Philistine giant Goliath. His heroism enabled him to marry King Saul’s daughter Michal. While Saul was still alive, David succeeded him as king. His reign saw the expansion of Israel’s borders but eventually ended after continuous revolts and personal hardships. King David composed most of the Book of Psalms.
Diaspora: the Jewish communities residing outside of the Land of Israel.
Eichah: the Biblical Book of Lamentations, one of the five biblical Megilot.
Rabbi Eliezer (C.40-120 CE): Born in Jerusalem, Rabbi Eliezer ben Hyrcanus was one of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai’s five most prominent students, who eventually became the leading rabbi of his day and Rabbi Akiva’s teacher. He formulated approximately 300 Mishnaic laws.
Elisha (d. 663 BCE): Born in Avel-mehola, in the Jordan Valley, Elisha was the prophet Elijah's student and successor. The Book of Kings I recounts his many miracles: purification of Jericho's drinking water, transformation of a single cruse of oil into many vessels' worth, resurrection of a child, and the healing of a Gentile general from leprosy. Elisha is also the name of Elie and Marion Wiesel’s son.
Eliyahu HaNavi/ Elijah the prophet: From Tishbe in Gilead, he challenged the prophets of Baal at Mt. Carmel. He did not die but ascended to the heavens in a fiery chariot in 718 BCE. He became the most popular biblical figure in Eastern European Jewish folklore, according to which he occasionally reappears in various guises to rescue individuals from danger and reveal secrets of the Torah to the worthy. He also makes an invisible appearance at every Passover seder and circumcision. Ultimately, he will announce the coming of the Messiah.
Erev: Generally, the day leading up to Shabbat or a holiday; occasionally the actual nighttime thereof.
Esther (4th century BCE): Born in Shushan, the capital of the Persian Empire, she became the wife and queen of King Ahasuerus [Xerxes I]. Together with her cousin Mordechai, she averted Haman’s decree to annihilate the Jews of Persia. The date of the massacre had been decided by casting lots (purim). Esther’s rescue story is recounted in megillat Esther [the Scroll of Esther] and commemorated on the festival of Purim.
Ezra (d. 313 BCE): Born in Babylon, he was a scribe, priest and head of the Great Assembly. Upon the completion of the Second Temple, Ezra led a second wave of exiles back to Jerusalem. Ezra devoted himself to teaching and encouraging the observance of Torah Law; he copied and disseminated the books of Tanach.
Fast days: Dawn to dusk: Tishrei 3 (Fast of Gedalia); Tevet 10; Adar 13 (Fast of Esther); Tammuz 17. Dusk to dusk: Av 9; Tishrei 10 (Yom Kippur). See also BeH”ab.
Louis Finkelstein (1895-1991): Born in Cincinnati, Rabbi Dr. Finkelstein received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1918 and was ordained at the Jewish Theological Seminary in 1919. His major scholarship was on the Pharisees, a second Temple sect from which modern Judaism developed. He served as the chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary 1940-1972. Professor Wiesel liked to quote the “great” Louis Finkelstein for saying that the Jewish people were unique: they never had an aristocracy; their aristocrats were their scholars. According to Ari Goldman, in his obituary in the New York Times, Rabbi Finkelstein was “the dominant leader of Conservative Judaism in the 20th century.”
Josephus Flavius (36- 100 CE): Originally named Joseph Ben Matthias. Born to a priestly family in Jerusalem, Josephus was a historian who explained Jewish history to a wider audience through books on the Jewish Revolt in which he was a general (The Jewish War), Second Temple Judaism (Antiquities of the Jews), and early Christian history.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Born in Freiberg, Sigmund Schlomo Freud was a founding father of psychoanalysis, a theory and method for treating mental illness. He also pioneered dream interpretation. In 1933, the Nazis burned his books and in 1938, they seized his property. Though Freud emigrated to England in 1938, his sisters, who stayed in Vienna, were murdered in concentration camps in 1941. His most famous works are The Interpretation of Dreams, The Ego and the Id and Civilization and its Discontents.
(The) Gerer Rebbe/ Yitzchak Meir Rotenberg-Alter/ The Chiddushei HaRim (1799 – 1866): Born in Magnuszew, Poland, he was a child prodigy, disciple of Rabbi Simcha Bunim of Peshischa and then of Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Kotzk, the Kotzker Rebbe. He founded the Ger dynasty, which became the dominant Hasidic group in central Poland. Combining the teachings of Peshischa and Kotsk, he was a prolific and influential author of commentaries on the Talmud and the Shulchan Aruch.
Goethe/ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832): Born in Frankfurt, then a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, Goethe was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theater director, and critic. He became symbolic of the modern era much as Homer, Dante and Shakespeare symbolized the ancient, medieval and renaissance periods. He is perhaps best known for The Sorrows of Young Werther, the first novel of the Sturm und Drang movement, and for Faust, a play about a man who sells his soul to the Devil and is often considered Germany's greatest contribution to world literature.
Mikhail Gorbachev (1931-2022): Born in Privolnoye, Gorbachev was the last leader of the USSR. Although he began his career as a staunch Marxist-Leninist, Gorbachev democratized the Russian political system and decentralized the economy. He helped to open the door of emigration for Soviet Jews. In recognition of his leadership in ending the Cold War, Gorbachev won the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1990.
Gregorian calendar: The Christian/civil (solar-based) calendar in use throughout much of the world today, first issued by Pope Gregory in 1582.
Hadrian (76-138 CE): Born Publius Aelius Hadrianus in Italica, Spain, he became Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, Emperor of Rome in 117 until his death. Known for visiting and Romanizing almost every province of the Roman Empire and for building his eponymous wall to separate England from Scotland, he was the Emperor who suppressed the Bar Kokhba revolt in Judea (c. 132-136 CE). He persecuted Jews by selling prisoners into slavery and forbade the teaching of the Torah. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, he wiped the name off the map and replaced it with Syria Palaestina. He expelled Jews from Jerusalem and renamed it Aelia Capitolina after his own name Aelius.
Hagar: Born in Egypt, she was the maidservant of Sarah and became Abraham’s concubine when Sarah was unable to conceive. She was the mother of Abraham’s first-born son, Ishmael. Hagar and Ishmael were banished from Abraham’s household at Sarah’s request because of Ishmael’s potentially negative influence on Isaac. G-d however promised Hagar that Ishmael would become a great nation.
Halakha: Jewish law; or a particular law in a specific case; or the sections of the Talmud and other rabbinic writings that discuss the many Jewish laws.
Haman: The antagonist of the Scroll of Esther, which is read annually on the Festival of Purim, Haman was the descendant of Amalek. His plot to annihilate the Jews of Persia was foiled by Mordecai and Queen Esther. At King Ahasuerus' order, he was hanged.
Hasidim: Orthodox Jews spiritually bound to a master or rebbe and guided in practice by the mystical precepts of Chasidic teaching.
Hasidism: A movement of joyous piety initiated in eastern Europe in the eighteenth century. Decimated in the Holocaust, the movement has been rebuilt throughout the world.
Hasidei Ger: The largest group of prewar Polish Chasidim. The postwar center was established in Jerusalem.
Heder: a school dedicated to Torah study for boys under the age of bar mitzvah (13).
Rabbi Abraham Joshua Heschel (1907-1972): Born in Warsaw to a Hasidic family, Rabbi Heschel immigrated to the United States in 1940 and became a professor of Jewish Ethics and Mysticism at the JTS in 1946 until his death. He articulated his original theology in Man Is Not Alone (1951) and God in Search of Man (1955). He was also a social activist in the civil rights movement, most famously photographed alongside Martin Luther King Jr. in the Selma Civil Rights march in 1965. As Heschel later wrote, "When I marched in Selma, my feet were praying."
Theodor Herzl (1860-1904): Born in Budapest, Theodor Herzl was the founding father of political Zionism. A playwright and journalist, he was heavily influenced by the Dreyfus Affair which began in 1894 in Paris. His pamphlet The Jewish State (1896) articulated Zionism as a modern nationalist movement dedicated to reestablishing a Jewish homeland. In 1897 Herzl established the Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland. He is buried on Mt. Herzl in Jerusalem, overlooking Yad Vashem.
Hillel (c. 110 BCE- 9 CE) Born in Babylon, he moved to Jerusalem to study and was known as Hillel the Elder or Hillel the Sage. He was elected the president of the Sanhedrin, the supreme Jewish court. He formulated the Golden Rule: "What is hateful to you, do not do unto your fellow man. That is the whole Torah; the rest is commentary; now go and learn." His Torah academy became the “House of Hillel” which stood in contrast to the “House of Shammai.” His youngest and greatest student was Yochanan ben Zakkai.
Rabbi Hiyya (180-230 AD): Born in Babylon, Rabbi Hiyya moved to Judea in his youth where he became the best student in Rabbi Yehuda HaNasi’s academy. He compiled the Baraita and Tosefta, and established his own Beit Midrash in Tiberias.
Isaac (1713-1533 BCE) Born in Canaan, Isaac was the son of Abraham and Sarah, husband of Rebecca, father of Jacob and Esau. He is the second of the three patriarchs and the first Jewish male to be circumcised at eight days old. When G-d tested Abraham’s faith, Isaac accompanied his father to be sacrificed on Mt. Moriah. The story of the “Binding of Isaac'' or the Akedah is read on the second day of Rosh Hashanah.
Isaiah (7th century BCE) Born in Jerusalem, he was one of the greatest prophets, often compared to Moses and after whom the Book of Isaiah was named. A contemporary of Hosea, Amos and Micah, many of his messages were hopeful and described the Messianic era. His visions have been preserved in the collective liturgy of the Jewish people.
Jeremiah (650 BCE-570 BCE): Born to a priestly family in Benjamin, Jeremiah was a Hebrew prophet and social reformer, who witnessed the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. He lamented the fall of Jerusalem in Megillat Eicha (Lamentations), which is read on Tisha B’Av.
Job: There is no consensus when or where Job lived, but one favored opinion places his birth at the time of Bnei Yisrael’s arrival in Egypt and his death at the time of the Exodus. The Rabbis write that Job was a royal advisor to Pharaoh when he decreed all Jewish male newborns should be murdered; his indifference was punished with great suffering throughout his lifetime. The Book of Job explores the theme of suffering, concluding with Job’s acceptance that God acts in mysterious ways.
Jonah (9th century-8th century BCE): Born in the Galil, he was a prophet during the reign of Jeroboam II. Commissioned by God to warn the people of Nineveh of their imminent destruction, he fled to Tarshish. Swallowed by a big fish, Jonah atoned for his mistakes, assumed responsibility and the Ninevites became moral, God-fearing people. Because of its theme of repentance, the Book of Jonah is read on Yom Kippur.
Joseph (1562-1452 BCE): Born in Haran, Joseph was the eleventh of Jacob’s twelve sons from whom the twelve tribes of Israel descend. As Jacob’s favorite child, he was given a colorful tunic. His jealous older brothers sold him into slavery but after interpreting Pharoah’s dreams, Joseph became the second most powerful man in the country. Famine brought his brothers to Egypt, setting the stage for the slavery and Exodus of the Israelites.
Joshua (1355-1245 BCE): Joshua succeeds Moshe as the leader of the Jewish nation after Moses dies. He leads the Insraelites into the Land of Israel. The Book of Joshua, which describes the espionage and wars to conquer Israel, is the first book of the Prophets. The book’s second half chronicles the tribes as they divide the Land of Israel and concludes with Joshua’s death.
Franz Kafka (1883–1924): Born in Prague, he wrote in German and was one of the most important European modernist writers. Though an assimilated Jew, his personal correspondence reveal his interest in Jewish languages, culture and identity. His most famous works include The Metamorphosis, The Trial, The Penal Colony and Letter to His Father.
Kant (1724-1804): Born in Konigsberg, then the capital of East Prussia, Immanuel Kant pioneered modern philosophy. He synthesized the rationalism of René Descartes and the empiricism of Francis Bacon, maintaining that human beings have synthetic a priori concepts. In his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, he established his central concept: the categorical imperative whereby a rule of conduct needs to be absolutely applicable to all agents.
Kiddush levana: A monthly blessing of the moon.
Kierkegaard, Søren Aabye (1813 – 1855): Born in Copenhagen, he was a Christian theologian, philosopher, poet and social critic. He is considered to be the first existentialist philosopher. He favored examining the lives and emotions of a “single individual” and was critical of state-controlled religion, such as the Church of Denmark. He had a penchant for metaphor, irony and parables.
Shimon Bar Kokhba (c. 15-135): Born in Judea, a descendant of King David, Shimon Bar Kokhba was the leader of the aborted rebellion against Rome (132- 135 CE). Bar Kokhba led his army as a dictator, initiating his soldiers by cutting off their fingers or by forcing them to uproot a cedar tree. Bar Kokhba cautioned God neither to help nor discourage the Judeans in battle, preferring to win by his own merits, but insisting that the Judean army keep strict halacha. Bar Kokhba died in battle at Beitar.
Kotzker Rebbe (1787-1859): Born near Lublin, Rav Menachem Mendel of Kotzk was the spiritual founder of the Ger Hasidic dynasty. He attracted many disciples who respected his down-to-earth spirituality and his disdain for inauthentic, pretentious piety. Although none of his manuscripts survived, his students published collections of his famous teachings, most notably Emes VeEmunah.
Kristallnacht: the November 9-10, 1938 pogrom in Germany and Austria.
Lag b’Omer: Iyar 18, the thirty-third day of the Omer count, a day of rejoicing.
Leap year: In Hebrew referred to as shana miuberet; seven out of nineteen years add an extra month, called Adar II, in order to align the lunar calendar with the solar year.
Rabbi Levi Yitzchok of Berditchev (1740-1809): Born in Berdychiv, Ukraine, Rabbi Levi Yitzchok was one of the most beloved Chassidic rebbes. Legend tells that when he was born, the Baal Shem Tov threw a party to welcome into the world the soul of a “defender of the Jewish people.” Levi Yitzchok saw himself as the defense attorney of Am Yisrael before God. Berditchev Jewry was a center of the Haskalah and infamously anti-religious. In the local Jewish theater, Rabbi Levi Yitzchok was often caricatured as the absurd, superstitious rabbi. Nevertheless, Rabbi Levi was determined to create a thriving community in this secular, hostile environment, something entirely unheard of in his time.
Rabbi Shaul Lieberman (1898-1983): Born in Belarus, Rabbi Shaul Lieberman, the Gra”sh (Gaon Rabbeinu Shaul), was a Professor of Talmud at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America for forty years, and rector of its Rabbinical School for twenty-five years. Although he worked at a Conservative seminary, Lieberman remained staunchly Orthodox his whole life, and worked to ensure that Conservative Judaism stayed faithful to halacha. Professor Wiesel was Rabbi Lieberman’s student.
Lot:Born in Ur Kasdim (of the Chaldeans), Lot was the son of Haran and nephew of Abraham. He accompanied Abraham on his journey to Canaan but following a quarrel among their shepherds, Lot separated and moved to Sodom. When Sodom was destroyed, angels were sent to save him. His wife famously turned into a pillar of salt when she glanced back at Sodom burning. Lot is the ancestor of the nations of Ammon and Moab.
Luach: A calendar.
Lubavitcher Rebbe (1902-1994): Born in Nikolaev in the Russian Empire, Rabbi Menachem Mendel Schneerson lived most of his life in Brooklyn and was one of the greatest 20th century American rabbis. He transformed Chabad-Lubavitch from a small Hasidic group into one of the largest international Jewish outreach movements. Many of his followers believe that the Lubavitcher Rebbe was the Moshiach. He left no successor and he remains “The Rebbe” for Lubavitch adherents today.
Lubavitch Hasidim: Also known as Chabad, the group’s original base in White Russia was shifted to Brooklyn during World War II.
Seer of Lublin (1745-1815): Born in Lancut but lived in Lublin, Yaakov Yitzchak Horowitz was the most prominent Hasidic leader in Galicia in the early 1800s. He studied under the Maggid of Mezeritch. Although he did not establish his own dynasty, most tzadikim in Poland and Galicia viewed him as their personal rebbe, and thousands traveled great distances to hear his teachings or receive his miraculous blessings. He posthumously earned the title of “seer,” based on his reputation that he could intuit the source of a person’s soul just by looking at his forehead.
Maggid of Mezeritch (1710-1772): Born in Volhynia, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Dov Ber of Mezeritch was the Baal Shem Tov’s beloved student and successor. The Maggid is accredited for having organized Hasidut into a distinct philosophy and for having shaped the Bal Shem Tov’s spiritual ideas into a more concrete religious movement.
Maharal of Prague (1526-1609): Born in Poland, Rabbi Judah Leow served as chief rabbi of the Bohemian Jewish community in Prague and Moravia. The Maharal taught that God created an imperfect world for human beings to remedy through kind deeds and Torah study. Influenced by the Renaissance, the Maharal believed Torah could be understood through a scientific view of the universe. Legend tells that the Maharal created the golem to defend Jews from persecution.
Maimonides (1138-1204): Born in Cordoba, Moses Maimonides, known as the Rambam, was one of the greatest Jewish thinkers. He was a philosopher, physician, scientist and jurist. Maimonides provided a humanistic, rational approach to Judaism and theology. Two of his most famous works are The Guide for the Perplexed and his legal code, Mishnah Torah.
Marranos: Jews in medieval Spain and elsewhere who under the threat of the Inquisition were forced to conceal their Jewish identity and practice.
Matzah: Unleavened bread ritually eaten on Passover.
Menorah: A ritual candelabra lit in the ancient Jerusalem Temples; a personal candelabra lit to celebrate the festival of Hanukah.
Megilah/Megiloth: The five biblical books of Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Kohelet, and Esther; on specific sacred days, these are sometimes read from parchment scrolls.
Rabbi Meir Baal HaNes (101-200): Born in Asia Minor, Rabbi Meir was the student of Rabbi Akiva. Unlike his teacher, Rabbi Meir was not active in the Bar Kokhba Revolt though he was greatly affected by it, as his father-in-law was killed and his sister-in-law was sold to Rome as a prostitute (though he eventually saved her). After the revolt, Meir left Judea and returned to Asia Minor, where he composed the majority of his Mishnaic teachings. His wife Bruriah, famous for her Torah knowledge and sharp wit, is one of the few women cited by the Gemara. His burial site in Tiberias is a popular tourist destination.
Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786): Born in Dessau, Mendelssohn was the father of the Haskalah. He was a philosopher, Bible translator and commentator who won great acclaim in German academia, despite his Jewish background. Mendelssohn promoted the integration of Jews into German society, and argued, most famously in his book Jerusalem (1783), that one could synthesize Jewish faith and tradition with the ideals of the Enlightenment.
Messiah: The redeemer who, according to Jewish teaching, will announce a new era of peace and will serve as Israel’s king and foremost teacher.
Midrash: ancient compilations of Torah interpretation.
Mishnah: An ancient compendium of religious law that forms the bedrock of Jewish practice.
Molad: “Birth” of the new moon, which signals the onset of the new month.
Mordechai: One of the main heroes in the Book of Esther who, with his cousin, Queen Esther, saved the Jewish community of Shushan from destruction at the hands of Haman. Mordechai was promoted to chief advisor of King Ahasueros after Haman was defeated.
Moses (1391–1271 BCE): Born in Egypt after Pharaoh decreed the murder of all Hebrew male newborns, Moses was rescued in a basket in the Nile River by Pharaoh’s daughter, who raised him as an Egyptian. After discovering his Israelite identity, Moses led the Hebrews out of bondage and through the desert for forty years. He ascended Mt. Sinai in order to receive the Ten Commandments. Moses died in Jordan shortly before the Jewish people entered the Land of Israel. The Torah or the Five Books of Moses is named after him.
Rabbi Nachman (1772-1810): Born in Medzhybizh, Ukraine, the great-grandson of the Besht, Rav Nachman was the founder of the Breslov Hasidic movement. He preached that joy was a great mitzvah. R. Nachman famously wrote thirteen “Tales,” mythical legends full of fairies and kings with the larger goal of teaching his theological messages and Likhutei Moharan, a collection of sermons delivered to his students on holidays.
Nachmanides (1194-1270): Born in Spain, Rabbi Moses ben Nahman, known as the Ramban, was a medieval rabbi, poet, Kabbalist and physician. His famous commentary on the Torah explained the pshat, i.e. the simple meaning of the texts. As the leading rabbi of his time in Spain, Nachmanides was ordered by King James I of Aragon to debate Christian theologians publicly. He won the argument and as a result was forced to leave Spain, settling eventually in the Land of Israel.
Nadav: He was the eldest son of Aaron the Priest. When the Israelites were in the wilderness, Nadav, together with his brother Avihu, made a sacrifice using a “strange fire” that was not commanded by G-d. Both were immediately consumed by G-d’s fire. The motive of the sin and reason for the punishment has long been a question of debate among Jewish scholars.
Napoleon (1769-1821): Born in Corsica, Napoleon Bonaparte was a French general and statesman who rose to power in the Revolutionary Wars, becoming head of the French Republic in 1804 and crowned Emperor Napoleon I later that same year. In an effort to assimilate French Jewry, Napoleon emancipated Jews from the ghettos and attempted to reconvene the Great Sanhedrin in 1807.
Nathan (circa 880-790 BCE): Nathan was a prophet and advisor to King David and King Solomon. Famous for reprimanding David for committing adultery with Batsheba, he also informed David that he was ineligible for building the Temple as he had slain too many people in battle. According to the Talmud, Nathan authored the conclusion of the Book of Samuel.
Nebuchadnezzar (c. 642-562 BCE) Born in the region of Chaldea, King Nebuchadnezzar II was known as “[the] Great” and is considered the greatest King of the Second Babylonian Empire, also known as the Chaldean Empire. He restored and rebuilt his capital city of Babylon after it had been freed from Assyrian rule. For Jews, however, he was called a “destroyer of nations” because he captured Jerusalem in 586 B.C.E., brought to an end the First Temple period and exiled Jews to Babylonia.
Nehemiah (500-401 BCE): Born in Babylon, Nehemiah was governor of Persian Judea under King Artaxerxes I, the fifth King of the Achaemenid Empire. After his return to Jerusalem, he helped to rebuild and repopulate the city, enforced the divorce of Jewish men from their Gentile wives and promoted Mosaic law with Ezra the Priest. His story is told in the Biblical Book of Nehemiah.
Nigla: the revealed aspect of Torah.
Nistar: the hidden mystical aspect of Torah.
Noah (2704-1754 BCE): Assumed to be born in Mesopotamia, Noah was the tenth generation offspring of Adam. He and his immediate family were the only upstanding individuals when humanity erupted into total anarchy and were the only ones saved from the flood that wiped out the entire human race. Noah built an Ark where they took refuge. He saved all animals and peoples from extinction, forging a covenant with God after the flood in which God promised He would never again destroy the world.
Reb Nochum of Chernobyl (1730-1798): Born in Volhynia, Ukraine, Rabbi Menachem Nochum Twersky was a disciple of the Besht and the Maggid of Mezeritch. He wrote Meor Einayim, a collection of Hasidic interpretations of Parshat HaShavua. In 1773, he established his own court in Chernobyl; when he died, his son Reb Mordechai succeeded him, and each of Reb Mordechai’s eight sons created his own Hasidic dynasty.
Omer count: A special ritual of counting the forty-nine days and seven weeks from Passover to Shavuot.
Pardes: the orchard of mystical knowledge; an acronymn for the four levels of interpreting the Torah.
Parsha hashavuah: The weekly Torah reading drawn from the Five Books of Moses.
Passover (Hebrew: Pesach): Eight-day spring pilgrimage festival observed from the fifteenth to the twenty-second of Nisan celebrating the exodus of the Jews from slavery in ancient Egypt.
Paul (5-65 AD): Born in Tarsus, a city in the Roman Empire and now in Turkey, Saul was a Jew who had an epiphany on the road to Damascus. As St. Paul the Apostle, he was in the forefront of the spread and development of early Christianity. He disseminated Jesus’ teachings and formed the first generation of Christians. He was beheaded in Rome for his faith.
Pharaoh (1279-1212 BCE): Pharaoh was the antagonist of the Book of Exodus. Unlike the Pharaoh whom Joseph served, King Ramses II was wicked and oppressive, making the Israelite slaves suffer more each time Moses asked him to free them.
Purim: One-day spring holiday celebrated on the fourteenth (or in Jerusalem, the fifteenth) of Adar to commemorate the thwarting of an edict of annihilation in ancient Persia.
Rachel (? - 1553 BCE): Born in Paddan Aram, Rachel was one of the four Biblical matriarchs. She was the second but favorite wife of Jacob, and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin. She died while giving birth to Benjamin. According to Jeremiah, Rachel wept over the destruction of Jerusalem: “A voice is heard in Ramah, mourning and great weeping, Rachel weeping for her children and refusing to be comforted, because they are no more.” Rachel’s tomb in Bethlehem is a major pilgrimage site today.
RaDaK (1160-1235): Born in southern France, Rabbi David Kimhi wrote the Michlol, an encyclopedia of Hebrew grammar, that has helped both Jewish and Christian thinkers to understand the biblical text. The RaDaK wrote many famous commentaries on the Prophets, Psalms, and Chronicles as well as defenses of Judaism against the anti-Semitic polemics of the Church.
Rashi (1040-1105): Born in Troyes, France, Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzchaki was one of the most exceptional and influential biblical commentators in Jewish history. Rashi’s exegeses are written side by side with the Tenach itself in Rashi script and Jewish children are introduced to Torah learning with the help of Rashi’s biblical interpretations. All copies of the Talmud have been published since the 1520s with Rashi’s commentary included in the margins. Professor Wiesel wrote a biographical book on Rashi, saying that “Whenever I couldn’t grasp the meaning of a word, it was he, the Teacher of my Teachers, who rescued me.”
Rava (c. 280 – 352 CE): Born in Mahuza on the Tigris River, as Abba ben Joseph bar Ḥama, Rava established an academy in his hometown which later became the center of Jewish scholarship in Babylonia. Rava was famous for his halachic debates with Abaye, the head of the academy in Pumbedita, located on the bank of the Euphrates River. Hundreds of their disputes are recorded in the Talmud and epitomize the Talmud's dialectical logic. In most instances, the halacha follows Rava’s opinion.
Rebbe: Chasidic master, also known as Admor or Tzadik.
Reish Lakish (200-275 AD): Born in Petrea, the capital of Rome's Arabian province, Shim’on ben Lakish is said to have been a bandit and gladiator before he became one of the most important Torah scholars of his time in Roman-ruled Galilee. The Talmud says that Rabbi Yocḥanan bar Nafḥa convinced Reish Lakish that his strength was better suited for Torah study after allowing him to marry his sister. Although Reish Lakish began as Rabbi Yochanan’s student, he developed into a scholar of equal authority.
President Ronald Reagan (1911-2004): Born in Illinois, Reagan was a movie actor who became the 40th president of America (1981-1989). A staunch anti-communist, he facilitated the moderate policies of Gorbachev and the dissolution of the Soviet Union. He was the first presidential candidate to split the Jewish American vote along religious lines. His decision in 1985 to visit the German military cemetery in Bitburg was vehemently opposed by Professor Wiesel.
Rosh Hashana: The onset of the new Jewish year.
Rosh Chodesh: The onset of the new Jewish month.
Ruth (10th Century BCE): Born a Moabite princess, Ruth married Mahlon, son of Naomi and Elimelech. After Mahlon died, Ruth denounced the Moabites’ gods, journeyed with Naomi to Israel and converted to Judaism. Remarried to Boaz, they were the great-grandparents of King David. The Book of Ruth offers a lesson in kindness: those who take care of others are rewarded. It is read on Shavuot.
Samson (c. 1000 BCE): Born in Zorah, Samson the Nazirite was the last of the Israelite Judges, who saved the Israelites from the Philistines. His brute strength was infamous; he once killed a thousand Philistines with only a donkey’s jawbone. Samson married Delilah, herself a Philistine, who exposed Samson’s “secret weapon,” his uncut hair. His physical strength also brought his downfall: at a pagan festival, Samson knocked down the pillars of a Philistine temple, killing thousands of Philistines as well as himself.
Satan: Satan occupies a less prominent position and less anthropomorphic nature in Judaism than he does in Christianity. He is often associated with the evil inclination (the yetzer hara). He is only mentioned twice in the Five Books of Moses, both times in the story of Balaam. He featured more prominently in rabbinical interpretations of the Akedah and the trials of Job, texts of great significance to Professor Wiesel.
Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980): Born in Paris, Sartre was a French philosopher, public intellectual, novelist, and playwright, best known as the leading exponent of existentialism in the 20th century. Among his most famous works were Nausea (1938),The Wall (1939), No Exit (1944) and The Age of Reason (1945). In 1964 he declined the Nobel Prize for Literature, which had been awarded to his work exerting “a far-reaching influence on our age.” His work continues to influence sociology, critical theory and post-colonial theory.
Saul (c. 1021-1000 BCE): Born in Gibeah, to the tribe of Benjamin, Saul became the first Israelite king. Although he united the Israelites, he disobeyed G-d’s instruction to wipe out all of the Amalekites. According to the Book of Samuel I, because he spared Agag their king and his best cattle, Saul only reigned for two years. David succeeded Saul as king while he was still alive.
Sefer Torah: a Torah scroll.
Seneca (c. 4 BCE - 65 CE). Born in Cordoba, Hispania, Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger was a Roman stoic philosopher, statesman and tragedian. First he tutored and then he advised Nero; ultimately he was ordered by Nero to commit suicide on the probably false charges of plotting to assassinate the Emperor. Although a stoic, Seneca shared the prejudices against Jews of his times and in particular criticized the Jews for observing or being idle on the Sabbath.
Shabbat/Shabes: The Jewish Sabbath, a weekly celebration observed from Friday at dusk to Saturday at dusk.
Shammai (c. 50 BCE— c. 30 CE): Born in Judea, Shammai “the Elder” and Hillel “the Younger” co-led the Sanhedrin; they were the last zugot (“pairs”). Shammai and Hillel consistently represented opposing interpretations of law. Beit Shammai advocated for a literal, strict reading of Torah, while Beit Hillel offered a softer, more flexible approach. Beit Shammai also politically supported the Zealots who fought Roman rule over Judea. In 90 CE the rabbis of Yavneh ruled to uphold the authority of Beit Hillel.
Shavuot: Pilgrimage festival observed on the sixth and seventh of Sivan, to celebrate the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai, fifty days after the exodus from ancient Egypt.
Shimini Atzeret: Eighth day of Sukkoth, and also an independent holiday that features a prayer for abundant rainfall.
Reb Shmelke of Nikolsburg (1726-1778): Born in Chortkiv, Ukraine, Reb Shmelke was a brilliant scholar and leader of the second generation of Hasidim. He introduced Hasidic teachings to Polish Jewry. He served as rabbi of the Moravian town Nikolsburg, bringing a Hasidic personality to a predominantly Misnagdic community.
Rabbi Shimon (135-170 CE): Born in the Galilee, Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai was one of Rabbi Akiva’s most distinguished students. He most famously wrote the Zohar, the “Hidden Torah,” some of which he wrote during the thirteen years he and his son hid in a cave from the Romans.
Shmuel (Samuel; 931-877 BCE): Born in Ramah to Hannah and Elkanah, Shmuel was a Nazirite from birth who was raised by Eli the Priest of Shiloh. Shmuel became a prophet and the last ruler of Israel prior to the monarchy. The Book of Samuel is the third book in Prophets, retelling Shmuel’s leadership and the reigns of King Saul and King David.
Shofar: Ram’s horn obligatorily blown on Rosh Hashana and customarily blown during the preceding month of Elul.
Siddur: Prayer book.
Shema Yisrael (Hear Israel): A central prayer affirming God’s oneness and supreme authority. The parchment of tefillin and a mezuzah also contain sections of the Shema prayer.
Gershom Sholem (1897-1982): Born in Berlin, but drawn to Zionism and influenced by Martin Buber, he immigrated in 1923 to British Mandate Palestine. In 1933, he became the first professor of Jewish Mysticism at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and,through his scholarship, he brought Jewish mysticism to a wider audience. Among his most important works were: Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism; The Messianic Idea in Judaism and other Essays on Jewish Spirituality; The Origins of the Kabbalah; From Berlin to Jerusalem: Memories of My Youth; Walter Benjamin: the Story of a Friendship.
Shemona Esre: the central portion of each of our three daily prayer services. It is recited silently and while standing, and usually consists of 19 blessings.
Shivah: Lit. “seven.” The seven-day mourning period following the passing of an immediate family member.
Shneim Mikrah v’Ehad Targum: the standard practice of reviewing the week’s Torah portion twice in the original Hebrew and once in the Aramaic translation of Onkelos.
Shtetl: a small pre-Holocaust Eastern European town with a sizable Jewish population.
Shtiebl: a small Hasidic synagogue.
Shulchan Aruch: an authoritative code of Jewish law authored in the sixteenth century by Rabbi Yoseph Caro.
Shul: a synagogue.
Sighet: the town in Transylvania (Hungary/Romania) where Elie Wiesel grew up.
Simchas Torah: “the Rejoicing of the Torah”; one-day festival immediately following Sukkot, on which the weekly ritual reading of the Torah is annually concluded and begun anew; observed with dancing and processions with the Torah scrolls.
Spinoza (1632-1677): Born in Amsterdam, Baruch Spinoza was a leading rationalist philosopher in the Dutch Golden Age. Deeply influenced by Descartes, Spinoza was an early proponent of Enlightenment and biblical criticism. Amsterdam’s Jewish community labeled him an atheist, excommunicating him for his radical ideas. Spinoza’s most famous works are Ethics and Political Treatise.
Stalin (1878-1953): Born in Georgia, Joseph Stalin succeeded Lenin as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1922. His policy of forced collectivization of Soviet agriculture led to widespread famine, killing approximately twelve million and he incarcerated about 18 million in the Gulag. In World War II, he formed a Grand Alliance with Churchill and Roosevelt to defeat Hitler. Despite his initial support for the State of Israel, Stalin attacked Zionism as a form of American imperialism. On August 12th 1952, he ordered the murder of thirteen members of the Soviet Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, many of whom were prominent Yiddish writers.
Sukkah: Booth erected to dwell in during the holiday of Sukkoth.
Sukkoth: A fall pilgrimage holiday observed for eight days from the fifteenth through twenty-second of Tishrei.
Tallit: Fringed garment worn by Jewish men under or over a shirt; or, fringed prayer shawl worn by men during morning prayers.
Talmud: a vast compendium of story and religious law that expounds on the Mishna.
Tanach: The twenty-four books in the Jewish Bible.
Tannaim: sages who lived in Israel in the first centuries of the common era and whose teachings regarding Jewish law are recorded in the Mishna.
Targum Onkelos: An Aramaic translation of the Five Books of Moses written by Onkelos, a convert to Judaism who lived in Talmudic times.
Rabbi Tarfon (d. 130 AD): Born a Kohen in Yavneh, Rabbi Tarfon was a Mishnaic sage who supported Beit Shammai. In contrast to the Sanhedrin, Rabbi Tarfon opposed the death penalty. He also often argued with Rabbi Akiva over halachic interpretations. A humble man, R. Tarfon always admitted when R. Akiva had proved correct. The Haggadah tells us that Rabbi Eliezer, Rabbi Joshua, Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah, Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Tarfon sat at their seder discussing the Exodus until it was dawn and time for the morning prayer. Some scholars say that they were also planning a revolt against the Romans.
Tefillin: two small black leather boxes worn by males over the age of thirteen every weekday morning, one on the upper arm and one on the head, held in place by leather straps. Each box contains the four sections of the Torah referring to tefillin, handwritten on parchment.
Tehillim: Psalms.
Tekufah/Tekufoth: season/seasons.
Teshuva: repentance; the process of drawing closer to God.
Titus (39-81 CE): Born in Rome, Titus Caesar Vespasianus was the son and heir of Emperor Vespasian. Assuming imperial command in 79 CE, he famously oversaw the completion of the Colosseum and relief work after the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius and the Great Fire of Rome. In Jewish memory, he is recalled as “Titus the Wicked” for his role in crushing the Great Jewish Revolt in Judea. He not only destroyed the Second Temple but brought prostitutes into the Holy of Holies and exiled the Jews. According to Jewish legend, on Titus’ return to Rome, a gnat entered his nose and tormented his brain until his death.
Torah: Traditional Jewish sacred teachings.
Tzizit: Fringes worn on a tallit.
The Vilna Gaon/ Eliyahu ben Shlomo Zalman (1720–1797): Born in Seltz [now Belarus] in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , he was the preeminent Torah scholar and communal figure of Lithuanian Jewry. The title gaon [genius] acknowledged his extraordinary achievements in the study of Torah. He was uncompromising in striving to discover the correct reading of Talmudic texts. Chief amongst the "opposers" or Misnagdim, he fought a war against Hasidism. Maskilim in Eastern Europe considered him a harbinger of the Haskalah [Enlightenment] because he also valued the study of the sciences.
Rebbe of Vizhnitz (1830-1884): Born in Kosiv, Ukraine, Menachem Mendel Hager established the Vizhnitz Hasidic dynasty. He was famous for his love of Eretz Yisrael where he tried to emigrate when he was older but did not succeed. His Torah philosophy was published in Tzemach Tzaddik. His son Reb Boruch succeeded him as the second Rebbe of Vizhnitz. Professor Wiesel was himself a Vizhnitzer Hasid.
Voltaire (1694-1778): Born in Paris, as Francois-Marie Arouet, Voltaire was an Enlightenment philosopher, historian and author. He is most famous for his novel, Candide: or, the Optimist (1759). Voltaire attacked the Catholic Church for its superstition and fanaticism and advocated for separation of religion and state. He also wrote almost obsessively about Judaism and Jews at least in part because he considered Christianity a Jewish religion. Although he ultimately believed that “European” Christians could be saved, he did not think that “Asiatic” Jews could. His writings influenced the development of modern anti-Semitism.
Elisha Wiesel (1972-): Grew up in Manhattan and named after his paternal grandfather, who was murdered in the Holocaust, Shlomo Elisha is the only child of Elie and Marion Wiesel. After retiring from a career in finance, Elisha has become more publicly involved in philanthropic, political and communal activities. Honoring his father’s global legacies, Elisha advocates for vulnerable groups worldwide. Honoring his father’s Jewish legacies, Elisha champions his father’s Torah teachings and speaks out against anti-semitism and anti-Zionism. Elisha currently serves as the Chairman of the Board of the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity.
Yahrzeit: Anniversary of a Jewish person’s passing, observed according to the Jewish calendar date.
Yiftach (1160-1080 BC): Born in Gilead, Yiftach was the sixth Judge in the Book of Judges. He led the Israelites in battle against the Ammonites, vowing to G-d that if he won his battle, he would sacrifice the first person he saw to exit his house. When this turned out to be his daughter, he immediately regretted making this vow, but he honored it.
Rabbi Yishmael ben Elisha ha-Kohen (90-135 AD): Born in Galilee, the Romans took him captive as a child for his beauty and wisdom. Rabbi Yehoshua ben Chananiah, on his trip to Rome, rescued Yishmael and brought him back to Judea to raise him as a scholar. Rabbi Yishmael compiled the thirteen rules of interpretation (middot), which is part of the morning service. Alongside Rabbi Akiva, Yishmael was one of the Ten Martyrs executed by the Romans.
Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai (30 BCE-90 CE): Born in the Galilee, the most distinguished student of Rabbi Hillel, R. Yochanan served as the head of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem. When the Romans besieged the city, R. Yochanan argued that the Judeans should surrender to Roman rule. He was smuggled out of Jerusalem, according to legend, in a coffin and requested from Emperor Vespasian that the city of Yavneh be Israel's new Torah capital and home to the Sanhedrin.
Yom Kippur: Day of Atonement; final day of the ten days of repentance that begin with Rosh Hashana.
Aaron Zeitlin (1899-1973): Born in Belarus, the son of Hillel Zeitlin, he was a prolific Hebrew and Yiddish journalist and writer during the interwar period in Warsaw, often affiliated to the Jewish existential and mystical tradition. He moved to New York in 1939 where he was a professor of Hebrew Literature at the Jewish Theological Seminary. He authored in Yiddish a volume of Poems of the Holocaust and Poems of Faith (1967).
Zohar: the book attributed to the Talmudic sage Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai that contains the fundamental teachings of Jewish mysticism.